A Compendium of Ancient Geography, Astronomy, and Medicine: Difference between revisions

From Cultures of the Book at Penn
Jump to navigation Jump to search
(Created page with "thumb|300px|right|Marble Cover on Book. [https://franklin.library.upenn.edu/catalog/FRANKLIN_9924875933503681 A collection of two hundred and fifty coloured etchings descriptive of the manners, customs and dresses of the Hindoos] is a book authored by Balthazar Solvyns around 1799. The piece was created and published in Calcutta and currently resides in the University of Pennsylvania’s Kislak Center for Special Collections after it was accessioned i...")
 
 
(60 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
[[File:Cover.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Marble Cover on Book.]]
[[File:FrontCoverAvenus.png|thumb|Front Cover|300px]]
 
[https://franklin.library.upenn.edu/catalog/FRANKLIN_9931379803503681 ''Hic Codex Avienii''] is incunable published in Venice by Antonius de Strata of Cremona on October 25, 1488 (November 8, 1488 on Julian Calendar). This collection contains works by Avienus, including his adaptation of Aratus’s Phaenomena, alongside contributions from Germanicus Caesar, Cicero, and Serenus Sammonicus. This volume contains 122 unnumbered leaves, embellished with 38 [[woodcuts]], some of which are reused from earlier works. The text, set in a chancery quarto format, features 38 lines per page. This volume is a part of the University of Pennsylvania’s Kislak Center for Special Collections, offering a window into Renaissance intellectual culture and early printing techniques.
[https://franklin.library.upenn.edu/catalog/FRANKLIN_9924875933503681 A collection of two hundred and fifty coloured etchings descriptive of the manners, customs and dresses of the Hindoos] is a book authored by Balthazar Solvyns around 1799. The piece was created and published in Calcutta and currently resides in the University of Pennsylvania’s Kislak Center for Special Collections after it was accessioned in 1960. This book is categorized as a scrapbook and comprises 250 etchings featuring the wide variety of occupations in 18th century India that are typically accompanied by descriptive captions in both French and English.  
 


== Background ==
== Background ==
Line 8: Line 6:
===Historical Context===
===Historical Context===


This book was published in Calcutta, a colonial city developed as a British settlement by the English East India Company in 1690.<ref name="Calcutta">De, T. (n.d.). About Calcutta. Retrieved April 26, 2023, from https://www.isical.ac.in/~theophys-07/calcutta.html#:~:text=Warren%20Hastings%2C%20the%20first%20Governor,moved%20from%20Murshidabad%20to%20Calcutta</ref> Not long after company rule in Calcutta was first established, the city became a pinnacle of learning, trade, arts, finance and law in the Indian subcontinent leading to its eventual position as the capital of British India in 1772.<ref name= "Calcutta"/>The geography of the land allowed Calcutta to become a prime port city for the British Empire, bringing in a wide variety of people and occupations including painters, weavers, and masons.<ref name="port">Raj, K. (2011). The historical anatomy of a contact zone: Calcutta in the eighteenth century. "The Indian Economic & Social History Review", 48(1), 55-82.</ref>  
This book was published in Venice in 1488 during a period of territorial expansion and political restructuring for the Republic of Venice. By the late 15th century, Venice had established itself as a major maritime power with vast territories on both the Italian mainland and across the eastern Mediterranean as a whole. Venice was in the process of consolidating its control of the Terraferma under the rule of Doge Giovanni Mocenigo. This consolidation was necessitated by the need to secure trade routes and counteract the territorial ambitions of regional powers like Milan and the Ottoman Empire. <ref name="Finlay">Finlay, Robert. Politics In Renaissance Venice. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1980.</ref>


The governor of Calcutta at the time, Warren Hastings, implemented a policy to provide monetary support to officials to support the study of Indian languages and cultural practices.<ref name= "port"/> This policy spearheaded the effort to amass knowledge and information about the people of the Indian subcontinent for the purposes of the British empire.  
During this time, Venice was experiencing great commercial success. Venice was known for its successful trade routes as well as its production of luxury goods, including textiles like silk and other high quality fabrics. <ref name="Mola"> Molà, Luca, and Luca Molà. The Silk Industry of Renaissance Venice, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000.</ref> During this period, Venice emerged as a center of printing and intellectual activity. Intellectual life was flourishing throughout the city. Venice soon came to dominate not only the Italian printing industry, but the entire European printing Industry for a period. <ref name="Richard">Richardson, Brian. Printing, Writers, and Readers In Renaissance Italy. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1999.</ref>


The East India Company had provided the infrastructure necessary to support the storage of such information by establishing printing presses in Calcutta. Ultimately, by 1800, there were roughly 40 printing presses in Calcutta that also featured type fonts in the Devanagari and Bengali scripts. <ref name= "port"/> The widespread establishment of printing presses in Calcutta brought on the rise of libraries and bookshops for storage of European books as well as of manuscripts created in Calcutta and the wider state of Bengal.<ref name= "port"/> Ultimately, this set Calcutta up to become “the birthplace of large-scale printing in the Subcontinent” and a flourishing cultural center.<ref name= "port"/>
Venetian printing helped distribute Renaissance humanism throughout Europe and facilitated the exchange of knowledge. This reflects the city’s role in the cultural and intellectual status of the period.<ref name= "Richard"/> These books were not only texts, but symbols of Venetian sophistication and the cosmopolitan nature of this complex society.


In 1785, many wealthy governors, bankers, and merchants left Calcutta to move back to Europe and in the process left many artists with little opportunity to obtain commissions.<ref name="house">Eaton, N. (2014). Virtual witnessing? Balthazar Solvyns and the navigation of precision, c. 1790–1840. "Journal of Historical Geography", 43, 49-59.</ref> As a result, the artistic community collectively had to explore art forms outside of portraiture and began associating themselves with establishments known as Houses of Agency.<ref name= "house"/> Houses of agency supported the artistic community by selling artist prints at public auctions.<ref name= "house"/> At the time, ethnographic content was popular amongst consumers which led to much of the artistic community to shift to producing such art.<ref name= "house"/>
===Incunables in the 15th Century===


===Balthazar Solvyns===
The 15th century was a transformative era for book production promoted by the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1450. This invention introduced the era of incunables, which represents a pivotal moment in the transition from manuscript to printed book. <ref name="Febre">Febvre, Lucien, and Henri-Jean Martin. The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing, 1450-1800. London: Verso, 1990.</ref> The innovations in printing technology helped mass produce books, which significantly reduced their cost and increased their accessibility.
Balthazar Solvyns was one such artist based in Calcutta and focused on creating ethnographic art. Solvyns is credited with the creation of the etchings in this book. He was born in Antwerp and spent time in Paris training as a marine painter.<ref name= "house"/> Resulting from political unrest in Europe, Solvyns moved to Calcutta where he began the massive project that culminated in the compilation of his 250 etchings.<ref name= "house"/> <ref name= "project"> Hardgrave, R. L. (n.d.). "The Solvyns Project". The solvyns project. Retrieved April 26, 2023, from https://www.laits.utexas.edu/solvyns-project/index.html</ref> Sources claim that he began this project in 1793 and published his etchings in 1799.<ref name= "house"/>


In a December 1795 published edition of the Calcutta Gazette, Solvyns stated “the drawings of the whole collection [will be] taken partly from nature and partly from original paintings in the possession of gentleman in India”<ref name= "house"/> indicating that he may have created his etchings by acting as a first-hand witness of daily life in India and by recreating existing paintings that featured similar content. It also remains unclear who wrote the accompanying captions to the etchings and whether Solvyns himself compiled the work in scrapbook format.  
Venice became an epicenter for printing due to its strategic location and vast trade networks, which enabled the efficient distribution of books throughout Europe. Books printed in Venice were also used as exemplars by other European printers, highlighting the influence and reach of books produced in the Republic of Venice. <ref name="Jenson">Jensen, Kristian, Incunabula and Their Readers: Printing, Selling, and Using Books In the Fifteenth Century. London: British Library, 2003.</ref> The city attracted printers like Johannes de Spira and Nicolas Jenson, whose work in the 1460s helped establish the high standards for book design, especially those of Roman and Italic typefaces. While most illuminations would be ordered by the customers, Jenson’s firm ordered the illuminations himself before the book even reached the customer. <ref name="Richard"></ref>


===History of Costume Books and Print Collecting in Northern Europe===
The substantial funding from its wealth merchants and nobility, supported a thriving intellectual culture that contributed to the economic status of Venice in the 15th century. This environment was conducive to the success of printing and the dissemination of new ideas. By its very nature a reading public was not only more dispersed; it was also more atomistic and individualistic than a hearing one. <ref name="Elizabeth">Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. The Printing Revolution In Early Modern Europe. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]: Cambridge University Press, 1983.</ref> For this reason, incunables often contained texts that reflected a variety of Renaissance interests in classical antiquity, religious matters, scientific explorations, and humanistic studies that catered to an increasingly diverse audience beyond just scholars.
The content of this book is reminiscent of the costume book tradition in Europe. The costume book was born in the 16th century through inspiration from travelogs and became the primary means to feature the people of foreign lands.<ref name= "costume"> Riello, G. (2019). The world in a book: the creation of the global in sixteenth-century European costume books. "Past & Present", 242(Supplement_14), 281-317.</ref>
 
The assemblage of this book also harkens back to the European tradition of print-collecting. Print-collecting was popularized as a form of connoisseurship during the Renaissance.<ref name= "print"> Parshall, P. (1994). Art and the theater of knowledge: the origins of print collecting in northern Europe. Harvard University "Art Museums Bulletin", 2(3), 7-36. </ref> Prints were collected from artists’ workshops and typically used for the enhancement of existing books. <ref name= "print"/>  Additionally, prints created by specific publishing houses were eventually curated in albums and portfolios. <ref name= "print"/>
 
The process of print-collecting was relied upon in the creation of this book whether by Solvyns or an anonymous collector. The work assumes a costume book-esque format with the purpose of advancing exploration of daily life in colonial India.  


==Material Analysis==
==Material Analysis==
===Substrate and Platform===
===Substrate and Platform===
This book has been produced on blue album paper that is thin enough to contain 250 etchings. It appears as though the cursive text has been directly inscribed onto the paper while the etchings have been glued in. It is likely that the individual that compiled the album bought an initially empty album cover and proceeded to paste in the etchings and directly transcribe the captions on to the pages.
This book has been printed on rag paper in chancery quarto format, measuring 159 x 100 mm, ideal for the presentation of text accompanied by its 38 woodcut illustrations. It features signatures a<sup>10</sup> b-p<sup>8</sup> with blank leaves most likely left for note space.
 
The bibliographic format of this codex is folio and its length of 21 inches allows for full-length portrayals of the people presented in the etchings. The codex is rectangular in shape and the etchings span the entire length of the page.  


[[File:Title Page Solvyns.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Title Page of the Book with missing imprint piece replaced by blue strip of album paper.]]
[[File:Title Page Solvyns.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Title Page of the Book with missing imprint piece replaced by blue strip of album paper.]]


===Binding===
===Binding===
The book is bound in a manner that appears to be consistent with European binding styles of the late 18th century. The spine contains gold tooling that creates five segments. In gold tooling, there is also a condensed version of the title and author that states, “SOLVYNS’S MANNERS & CUSTOMS OF THE HINDOOS”. The cover of this codex is hardcover and has been made using red, marbled paper. Such use of gold tooling and red labeling was characteristic of the 17th and 18th century binding style known as “budget binding” as the binding methods were simple in process yet decorative. <ref name= "binding"> Michigan State University. (n.d.). 18th century: Elaboration and simplicity". MSU Libraries. Retrieved April 26, 2023, from https://lib.msu.edu/exhibits/historyofbinding/18thcentury/ </ref>
The book appears to have been rebound indicated by the presence of newer flyleaf and endpaper compared to the original pages. The current binding, like what the original would have looked like, features a wooden cover encased in leather. Although the spine is now deteriorating, it retains valuable information including the publication date and author that reveal its age and historical context. This combination of original and new elements in the binding underscores the book’s journey as well as its preservation efforts.


[[File:Binding Solvyns.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Budget binding of book with gold tooling.]]
[[File:Binding Solvyns.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Budget binding of book with gold tooling.]]


===Navigational Features===
===Navigational Features===
The book contains a descriptive title page that contains the title of the piece, the date of publication, the location of publication, and the author. Curiously, there appears to be a missing piece of text on the title page that has been cut out and replaced with a strip of blue album paper. Digital versions of this book do not reveal what the text may have been, though it is reasonable to suggest that it may have been an imprint containing information about the publisher. There does not appear to be any indication of a patron or dedication in the book which is indicative of the fact that the Solvyns may have funded this project himself which was rare for ethnographic works at the time as they would often be dedicated to the East India Company.<ref name= "house"/>
The book uses basic navigational elements marked as a<sup>10</sup> b-p<sup>8</sup>. Using this style of navigational element that lacks modern foliation or catchwords is typical of this period. The text begins with a title and colophon that outline the book’s content and printing details. Throughout this edition of the book, lacking illuminations unlike other editions of this book, guide-letters and initial spaces help visually space the book. The inclusion of woodcuts further enhances the visual navigation.


Within the book, there are section pages that serve as titles for the upcoming chapter. The sections are organized thematically to cue in the reader to the subject matter of the proceeding etchings.  
===Woodcuts===
The book features 38 woodcut illustrations within the Germanicus Caesar section. These woodcuts are notable for their historical value and their representation of the astronomical themes of the book. The origin of these illustrations is also interesting: they are reversed copies of those used in the 1485 edition of Hyginus, printed by Ratdolt. This reusing of woodcut blocks highlights the economical practices of early printers who sought to maximize available resources and profit. It was probably much cheaper to copy someone else’s, and because modern copyright laws didn’t apply, it was probably not illegal.  


===Etchings===
The illustrations themselves are extremely important to understanding the content of the book, especially in conveying the complex astronomical and mythological information. The depiction of constellations helps readers visualize the celestial configurations discussed in the text.
The etchings are massive as they span the entire length of the book on the recto side and are always colored. Each of the 250 etchings include a title that often describes the occupation being displayed in the etching, the section number in the top left corner, and the image number within that section in the top right corner. In terms of content, the etchings contain a main character of sorts in the foreground with additional individuals, tools, and locations depicted in the background. The figures in the etchings appear to be tall and grandiose with respect to the background which draws the audience into the subject of the image. The figures usually also adorn a more somber or non-expressive facial expression.  


In each of his five sections, Solvyns or the scrapbook compiler depicts various occupations and the people of Calcutta. In Section 1, the scrapbook compiler begins with those of highest caste and orders the rest of the plates in descending order of the established social hierarchy. The same is true for later sections, though it is harder to tell whether the same social hierarchy is preserved as the sections past the first lack captions that detail what the role entailed.  
By incorporating these visual elements, the book bridges the gap between text and visualization, allowing the reader to enhance their experience and understanding of the ancient astronomical knowledge it provides.


<gallery mode="packed" perrow=4 heights=250px>
<gallery mode="packed" perrow=4 heights=250px>
Line 58: Line 48:
</gallery>
</gallery>


===Text===
===The Collections Within===
The primary text in this book are captions to the etchings that have been directly handwritten in cursive on the verso side of the album paper. The captions are written in both French and English, with the French translation preceding the English one. The captions begin with an underlined title that corresponds with the etching title to describe the occupation being presented.  
This incunable is a collection of classical texts that includes a collection of works by Rufius Festus Avienus, as well as adaptations by Germanicus Caesar and Cicero of Aratus’s ''Phaenomena'' that gives an introduction to the consellations. It also contains the ''Liber medicinalis'' by Serenus Sammonicus.
 
Rufius Festus Avienus’s adaptation of the Greek poem ''Phaenomena'' extends the original text with detailed descriptions of Stoic elements, including mythological explanations for constellations, like linkin the Kneeler with Heracles. <ref name="Soubiran">Soubiran, Jean. 2003 (pr. éd. 1981). Aviénus, Les Phénomènes d’Aratos. Collection des Universités de France. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.</ref>


In certain circumstances, only the French caption is complete while the English translation has been left incomplete. This, coupled with the fact that the French translation comes before the English one, may indicate that the primary audience of the book was French. Further, only section one contains captions of the etchings. Afterwards, the etchings remain titled but the verso side is just blank album paper. This leads to a wide variety of explanatory speculations including that Solvyns in his time as a journeyman artist may not have been able to acquire enough information about the occupational details of the person or that he or the scrapbook compiler did not feel it necessary to fully describe the occupations in the later half of the book or even that the publisher was in a rush to publish which resulted in incomplete translations and captions.  
Germanicus was a notable soldier and politician known for his Latin translation of Aratus’ ''Phaenomena''. His work reflects Rome’s rising interest in astronomy and includes precise corrections based on Hipparchus’ critiques. This edition features detailed descriptions and annotations, most notably correcting the positing of the Kneeler constellation in relation to the Dragon. <ref name="Bœuffle">Le Bœuffle, André. 2003 (pr. éd. 1975). Germanicus, Les phénomènes d’Aratos. Collection des Universités de France. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.</ref><ref name="Possanza">Possanza, D. Mark. 2004. Translating the Heavens: Aratus, Germanicus, and the Poetics of Latin Translation. Lang Classical Studies. New York: Lang.</ref>


Within the caption text, one can also find semantic writing marks. Hindi and Bengali words and phrases are frequently underlined, likely to draw attention to the use of specific vocabulary. This is indicative of the fact that the book likely intended to serve as an Encyclopedia. There are also situations where words have been crossed out and rewritten or even replaced by other words. Interestingly, there are usually disparities in which words have been underlined in the French and English translations.  
Ciceros’s early translation is noted for its similarity to the original, despite sometimes including some linguistic notes and decorative details. Cicero also utilized ancient commentaries on Aratus for clarification as seen in his descriptions and adjustments. <ref name="Bishop">Bishop, Caroline. 2016. “Naming the Roman stars: constellation etymologies in Cicero’s « Aratea » and « De natura deorum ».” Classical Quarterly N. S. 66 (1): 155-171.</ref><ref name="BishopC">Bishop, Caroline. 2019. Cicero, Greek learning, and the making of a Roman classic. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 41-84.</ref>


In terms of content of the text, the captions serve as intricately detailed descriptions of the etchings. They start out by stating the occupation of the individual portrayed and then migrate into discussing broader topics such as the tools in the background and the specific type of oil a confectioner uses to create a pastry. The language of the captions also make it seem like the transcriber was present when the etchings were being created as many of the text say things like “he spent quite a lot of time with the learned” and “we have seen”. The use of the third person may suggest that a transcriber other than Solvyns was present to detail the observations and discussions during journeys across Calcutta.  
Q. Serenus’ Liber medicinalis is a didactic poem focusing on therapy by offering remedies for around 80 diseases across 1,107 hexameters, organized into 64 chapter. The poem saw significant usage and influence, even being copied by Charlemagne, the former Holy Roman Emperor. It was even highly regarded by Humanists and throughout the modern period. <ref name="Langslow">Langslow, D. R. Medical Latin In the Roman Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.</ref>


It is also important to note that many of the captions are written with a respectful tone and attitude, particularly when describing those deemed to be of “lower rank”. For example, in describing the role of a milkman, the writer describes the agility with which he balances the milk jugs. Similarly, when describing a writer, the caption states that they “Write very well, even the languages of the foreign nations”.


<gallery mode="packed" perrow=4 heights=250px>
<gallery mode="packed" perrow=4 heights=250px>
File:Sroterys_Brahmans_text.jpg|Text describing "Sroterys Brahmans" with words crossed out and underlined.
 
File:Incomplete_English_Translation.jpg|French caption on top with an incomplete English translation below.
File:Section_1_Title.jpg|Printed Section 1 Title
{...}
{...}
</gallery>
</gallery>


==Significance==
==Significance==
This compilation of 250 etchings is often touted by scholars to be “the first great ethnographic survey of life in Bengal”.<ref name= "project"/> Solvyns work is unique as he provides a systematized depiction of the caste system of India and provides first hand accounts that allow modern day historians to better understand colonial India.<ref name= "project"/> Scholars state that Solvyns’ work was the first in the world to depict a published image of a “Khalsa Sikh” by a European. <ref name= "Sikh"> Singh Madra, A., & Singh, P. (2004). An Artist’s Impressions of the Sikhs, Balt Solvyns, 1796. "“Sicques, Tigers, or Thieves”: Eyewitness Accounts of the Sikhs" (1606–1809), 177-181.</ref>
Sikhs are a religious community in India that typically reside in the region of Punjab, a state that is many kilometers away from the state of Bengal where Calcutta is located. <ref name= "Sikh"/>
Though this book has significant meaning today, it was not thought to hold the same significance amongst European audiences of the 18th century. In fact, Solvyns work was deemed to be a financial failure which is often chalked up to the fact that audiences considered his etchings to be too dull.<ref name= "house"/> It is evident that the work intrigued some groups of people as the well-known printmakers, Edward and William Orme, pirated Solvyns’ original work and republished it.<ref name= "house"/> In the republished version, Orme further darkened the skin of the figures in the etchings and removed etchings containing portrayals of Hindu rituals.<ref name= "house"/> In doing so, they created a collection of 60 etchings representing trade, transport, and household servants, topics that particularly appealed to the British metropolitan. The pirated version ended up being a financial success.<ref name= "house"/>
Even though Solvyns’ version failed financially, his work is praised for being the harbinger of the “Company School” genre of paintings in the 18th and 19th centuries.<ref name= "house"/> In this genre of art, Indian artists would create art tailored to the European gaze by creating romanticized views of the landscape and impressive images of the people.<ref name= "house"/>
Although much has been left to speculation with regards to the creator(s) of this book and limited knowledge about its use and circulation, it has evident meaning in its source as a comprehensive survey of life in British India. It is novel in its inclusion of certain subject matter and respectful of the way it addresses Indian customs and people. Solvyns’ work is appreciable in the manner it chooses to use the colonial gaze as a means to accurately articulate the people and customs of India, serving as a valuable source of information for contemporary readers as well as the audience of the 18th century.




== Bibliography ==
== Bibliography ==
<references />

Latest revision as of 06:07, 11 May 2024

Front Cover

Hic Codex Avienii is incunable published in Venice by Antonius de Strata of Cremona on October 25, 1488 (November 8, 1488 on Julian Calendar). This collection contains works by Avienus, including his adaptation of Aratus’s Phaenomena, alongside contributions from Germanicus Caesar, Cicero, and Serenus Sammonicus. This volume contains 122 unnumbered leaves, embellished with 38 woodcuts, some of which are reused from earlier works. The text, set in a chancery quarto format, features 38 lines per page. This volume is a part of the University of Pennsylvania’s Kislak Center for Special Collections, offering a window into Renaissance intellectual culture and early printing techniques.

Background

Historical Context

This book was published in Venice in 1488 during a period of territorial expansion and political restructuring for the Republic of Venice. By the late 15th century, Venice had established itself as a major maritime power with vast territories on both the Italian mainland and across the eastern Mediterranean as a whole. Venice was in the process of consolidating its control of the Terraferma under the rule of Doge Giovanni Mocenigo. This consolidation was necessitated by the need to secure trade routes and counteract the territorial ambitions of regional powers like Milan and the Ottoman Empire. [1]

During this time, Venice was experiencing great commercial success. Venice was known for its successful trade routes as well as its production of luxury goods, including textiles like silk and other high quality fabrics. [2] During this period, Venice emerged as a center of printing and intellectual activity. Intellectual life was flourishing throughout the city. Venice soon came to dominate not only the Italian printing industry, but the entire European printing Industry for a period. [3]

Venetian printing helped distribute Renaissance humanism throughout Europe and facilitated the exchange of knowledge. This reflects the city’s role in the cultural and intellectual status of the period.[3] These books were not only texts, but symbols of Venetian sophistication and the cosmopolitan nature of this complex society.

Incunables in the 15th Century

The 15th century was a transformative era for book production promoted by the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1450. This invention introduced the era of incunables, which represents a pivotal moment in the transition from manuscript to printed book. [4] The innovations in printing technology helped mass produce books, which significantly reduced their cost and increased their accessibility.

Venice became an epicenter for printing due to its strategic location and vast trade networks, which enabled the efficient distribution of books throughout Europe. Books printed in Venice were also used as exemplars by other European printers, highlighting the influence and reach of books produced in the Republic of Venice. [5] The city attracted printers like Johannes de Spira and Nicolas Jenson, whose work in the 1460s helped establish the high standards for book design, especially those of Roman and Italic typefaces. While most illuminations would be ordered by the customers, Jenson’s firm ordered the illuminations himself before the book even reached the customer. [3]

The substantial funding from its wealth merchants and nobility, supported a thriving intellectual culture that contributed to the economic status of Venice in the 15th century. This environment was conducive to the success of printing and the dissemination of new ideas. By its very nature a reading public was not only more dispersed; it was also more atomistic and individualistic than a hearing one. [6] For this reason, incunables often contained texts that reflected a variety of Renaissance interests in classical antiquity, religious matters, scientific explorations, and humanistic studies that catered to an increasingly diverse audience beyond just scholars.

Material Analysis

Substrate and Platform

This book has been printed on rag paper in chancery quarto format, measuring 159 x 100 mm, ideal for the presentation of text accompanied by its 38 woodcut illustrations. It features signatures a10 b-p8 with blank leaves most likely left for note space.

Title Page of the Book with missing imprint piece replaced by blue strip of album paper.

Binding

The book appears to have been rebound indicated by the presence of newer flyleaf and endpaper compared to the original pages. The current binding, like what the original would have looked like, features a wooden cover encased in leather. Although the spine is now deteriorating, it retains valuable information including the publication date and author that reveal its age and historical context. This combination of original and new elements in the binding underscores the book’s journey as well as its preservation efforts.

Budget binding of book with gold tooling.

Navigational Features

The book uses basic navigational elements marked as a10 b-p8. Using this style of navigational element that lacks modern foliation or catchwords is typical of this period. The text begins with a title and colophon that outline the book’s content and printing details. Throughout this edition of the book, lacking illuminations unlike other editions of this book, guide-letters and initial spaces help visually space the book. The inclusion of woodcuts further enhances the visual navigation.

Woodcuts

The book features 38 woodcut illustrations within the Germanicus Caesar section. These woodcuts are notable for their historical value and their representation of the astronomical themes of the book. The origin of these illustrations is also interesting: they are reversed copies of those used in the 1485 edition of Hyginus, printed by Ratdolt. This reusing of woodcut blocks highlights the economical practices of early printers who sought to maximize available resources and profit. It was probably much cheaper to copy someone else’s, and because modern copyright laws didn’t apply, it was probably not illegal.

The illustrations themselves are extremely important to understanding the content of the book, especially in conveying the complex astronomical and mythological information. The depiction of constellations helps readers visualize the celestial configurations discussed in the text.

By incorporating these visual elements, the book bridges the gap between text and visualization, allowing the reader to enhance their experience and understanding of the ancient astronomical knowledge it provides.

  • Etching with text

    Etching with text

  • Etching without text

    Etching without text

  • Colorful Etching of a Woman

    Colorful Etching of a Woman

The Collections Within

This incunable is a collection of classical texts that includes a collection of works by Rufius Festus Avienus, as well as adaptations by Germanicus Caesar and Cicero of Aratus’s Phaenomena that gives an introduction to the consellations. It also contains the Liber medicinalis by Serenus Sammonicus.

Rufius Festus Avienus’s adaptation of the Greek poem Phaenomena extends the original text with detailed descriptions of Stoic elements, including mythological explanations for constellations, like linkin the Kneeler with Heracles. [7]

Germanicus was a notable soldier and politician known for his Latin translation of Aratus’ Phaenomena. His work reflects Rome’s rising interest in astronomy and includes precise corrections based on Hipparchus’ critiques. This edition features detailed descriptions and annotations, most notably correcting the positing of the Kneeler constellation in relation to the Dragon. [8][9]

Ciceros’s early translation is noted for its similarity to the original, despite sometimes including some linguistic notes and decorative details. Cicero also utilized ancient commentaries on Aratus for clarification as seen in his descriptions and adjustments. [10][11]

Q. Serenus’ Liber medicinalis is a didactic poem focusing on therapy by offering remedies for around 80 diseases across 1,107 hexameters, organized into 64 chapter. The poem saw significant usage and influence, even being copied by Charlemagne, the former Holy Roman Emperor. It was even highly regarded by Humanists and throughout the modern period. [12]


Significance

Bibliography

  1. ↑ Finlay, Robert. Politics In Renaissance Venice. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1980.
  2. ↑ Molà, Luca, and Luca Molà. The Silk Industry of Renaissance Venice, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Richardson, Brian. Printing, Writers, and Readers In Renaissance Italy. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
  4. ↑ Febvre, Lucien, and Henri-Jean Martin. The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing, 1450-1800. London: Verso, 1990.
  5. ↑ Jensen, Kristian, Incunabula and Their Readers: Printing, Selling, and Using Books In the Fifteenth Century. London: British Library, 2003.
  6. ↑ Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. The Printing Revolution In Early Modern Europe. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
  7. ↑ Soubiran, Jean. 2003 (pr. éd. 1981). Aviénus, Les Phénomènes d’Aratos. Collection des Universités de France. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
  8. ↑ Le Bœuffle, André. 2003 (pr. éd. 1975). Germanicus, Les phénomènes d’Aratos. Collection des Universités de France. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
  9. ↑ Possanza, D. Mark. 2004. Translating the Heavens: Aratus, Germanicus, and the Poetics of Latin Translation. Lang Classical Studies. New York: Lang.
  10. ↑ Bishop, Caroline. 2016. “Naming the Roman stars: constellation etymologies in Cicero’s « Aratea » and « De natura deorum ».” Classical Quarterly N. S. 66 (1): 155-171.
  11. ↑ Bishop, Caroline. 2019. Cicero, Greek learning, and the making of a Roman classic. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 41-84.
  12. ↑ Langslow, D. R. Medical Latin In the Roman Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Retrieved from "http://digitalbookhistory.com/culturesofthebook/index.php?title=A_Compendium_of_Ancient_Geography,_Astronomy,_and_Medicine&oldid=42678"