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There are many different types of notes, including endnote, footnotes, and margin notes; each type note can serve a different purpose and has different advantages and disadvantages. An endnote is a note that appears at the end of a work and is organized sequentially in relation to where in the work the reference appears. While endnotes do not disrupt the reader or the layout of the page, the reader must flip or scroll to the end of the work in order to see the corresponding note. A footnote is a note placed at the bottom of the page corresponding to the item cited in the text above.<ref>USC Libraries Research Guide, Footnotes or Endnotes? https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/notes</ref> Footnotes are beneficial because the notes are easily located on the same page the reader is already looking at. However, this causes a major disadvantage: footnotes can clutter a page and negatively impact the visual. In many cases, footnotes may take up over half of the page. [[File:Footnotes from Julius Caesar.jpeg|thumb|250px|right|Footnotes in the 1881 Harvard Edition of ''Julius Caesar'']]Margin notes are similar to footnotes in that the note also appears on the same page as the text being cited; however, margin notes appear in the margin of the page in a location corresponding to the point of the text cited. While margin notes are easier to follow than footnotes, they may waste much more physical space on the paper and change the layout of the page much more drastically. Footnotes are usually flagged by numbers in square brackets or superscript or symbols. Traditionally, the order of symbols went: asterisk (*), dagger (†), double dagger (‡), section sign (§), pipe (‖), pilcrow (¶), and, finally, manicule (☞).<ref>Sherman, William H. Toward a History of the Manicule. 2005 http://www.livesandletters.ac.uk/papers/FOR_2005_04_001.pdf</ref>
''An Essay Towards A Natural History Of Serpents'' is a book by Charles Owen published in 1742 in London. The book is broken down into three parts: The first part talks about a general view of serpents such as their motion, diet, habits, and physical features. The second part gives a view of serpents known in several parts of the world described by their names, countries, and qualities. Finally, The third part contains six dissertations that are collateral to the subject of the book. The book contains seven copper plates [https://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-met/collection-areas/drawings-and-prints/materials-and-techniques/printmaking/engraving engravings], due to the high cost of having copper plate engravings, a solution was to incorporate subscriptions to help aid the printing of this book. The pages were most likely made from rags or linen. With the coming of a new scientific publishing era, this book is a prime example of a mix of both science and religious attributes and gives an insight on how early science books/papers were written.
=== History & Uses ===
In the context of history and academia, the footnote is used to both identify both the primary source and proves that the historian or academic has examined all relevant sources and constructed a new argument based on them. Leopold von Ranke, a 19th-century German historian, championed the idea of citations: footnotes must be used for primary documents to say explicitly what happened. He is considered to be by many the founder of modern historiography. <ref> Grafton, Anthony. The Footnote: A Curious History. [Rev. ed.]. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997. </ref> Before his time, historians would have inserted personal opinions and referenced unreliable secondary sources in the footnotes of their work. Von Ranke insisted that that every narrative about the past must rest on systematic analyses of the sources; in short arguments must be supported by tangible evidence, which was a revolutionary idea at the time. <ref>Major, David. Anthony Grafton Defends the Footnote, Princeton Alumni Weekly. https://paw.princeton.edu/article/anthony-grafton-defends-footnote</ref>
[[File:SerpentsCover.jpg|thumb|right|Title page of the book, gives an overview of the contents]]
Footnotes and endnotes may be called upon for a variety of different uses, and different disciplines often have different guidelines for their use. The government website for NASA lays out in its footnote guidelines that footnotes should be used in instances such as to acknowledge intellectual debts or indication of the source of information, need it be referenced. Footnotes can also be used to clarify the author’s arguments from that of another writer.<ref>Cermak, Bonni, Jennifer Troxell. Guide to Footnotes and Endnotes for NASA History Writers. https://history.nasa.gov/footnoteguide.html</ref> Other government offices may provide their own footnote guidelines.<ref>U.S. Government Printing Office Style Manual: Chapter 15 - Footnotes, Indexes, Contents, and Outlines. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-STYLEMANUAL-2008/html/GPO-STYLEMANUAL-2008-17.htm</ref>
== Usage==
[[File:Subscribers.jpg|200px|thumb|left|First page in the list of subscribers]]
[[File:CopperPlates.jpg|200px|thumb|right|one of the six copper plate engravings ]]
[[File:dragons.jpg|200px|thumb|left|one of the six copper plate engravings. Shows the duality of natural and unnatural elements contained in this text]]
== Harper & Brothers Revised Old Testament ==
Harper’s Franklin Square Library’s Revised version of the Old Testament ([[Lea Collection. D.2.10-11]]) utilizes both foot and margin notes to display information to the reader.<ref>The Revised version of the Old Testament: with marginal notes and the readings preferred by the American revisers printed as footnotes in four parts – Part 1: Genesis- Deuteronomy. Harper & Brothers 1885, from Rare Book and Manuscript Library, University of Pennsylvania.</ref> [[File:Harper & Brothers Page Old Testament.jpeg|thumb|250px|left|A page from ''Harper & Brothers Revised Old Testament'', 1885]]In the 1885 periodical, the text is formatted into two columns per page with two columns in the middle for margin notes. Short, explanatory notes appear in the inner margins, marked by superscript numerals, that reset back to 1 at the top of each column. [[File:Footnotes from Harper & Brothers Revised Old Testament.jpeg|thumb|300px|right|Footnoes from ''Harper & Brothers Revised Old Testament'', 1885]]At the bottom of certain columns are critical footnotes that are flagged by symbols that follow the traditional pattern of *†‡ etc. The editor of the periodical is able to best organize the information he is trying to convey to the reader by printing explanatory notes as margin notes and critical notes in the footnotes. The explanatory notes, which appear more frequently and are needed more by the reader, appear in the margins so that they are more easily referenced. The critical notes are relegated to the footnotes because they appear infrequently and are needed less for the reader’s understanding of the text. It is likely that the editor chose to use footnotes and margin notes instead of footnotes and endnotes because they wanted to use less paper to keep the costs on this relatively cheap periodical down and extra paper needed to print endnotes would not have helped.
== The Furness Shakespeare collection ==
=== Audience and Circulation ===
The audience was anyone who had an interest in serpents. It was written in a way that doesn't exclude anyone from reading it. Audiences could have ranged from collectors to students interested in researching serpents. The precise detail of the copper plate engravings also added features that could be enjoyed by various audiences. When it comes to circulation, the front title states "Sold by John Gray, at the Cross-Keys in the Poultry, near Cheapside". So, in the beginning, circulation started by being sold near Cheapside. Also, in early modern Britain, the primary means of creating, assembling, and sharing knowledge was through these types of books <ref>Yale, Elizabeth. “Introduction.: ‘A Whole and Perfect Bodie and Book’: Constructing the Human and Natural History of Britain.” Sociable Knowledge: Natural History and the Nation in Early Modern Britain, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016, pp. 1–20. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt18z4hqs.5. Accessed 8 May 2023. </ref>. Another audience and source of circulation come from the people that subscribed to the printing of this book. In this specific copy was owned by George Sherwood and then was later owned by Charles W. Burr, a professor of nervous diseases at Upenn. Finally, it was given to Penn in 1925.
[[File:Footnotes in Italian Hamlet 1965.jpeg|thumb|280px|right|Footnotes in the 1965 Italian edition of ''Hamlet'']]
===== Subscriptions =====
Due to the high costs of printing, authors came to subscribers for financial help. Similar to subscriptions today, subscribers would financially help by donating money and in return have their names in the book as a subscriber and also get a copy of the book after printing. This book had many subscribers. This was due in part to how expensive the copper plate engravings were. This book contains seven engravings so printing a lot of copies would cost a lot of money. Thus, these subscribers would be some of the first people to start the circulation of this book.
The Kislak Center at the University of Pennsylvania Libraries has many rare editions of Shakespeare, including many from the Furness Shakespeare collection that have extensive footnotes. The collection includes an Italian copy of Hamlet, printed by the International Publishing Company of Turin in 1965 ([[PR2807.A2 C4 1965]]), that features Italian footnotes to an English text.<ref>Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Società editrice internazionale, Turino, 1965, from Rare Book and Manuscript Library, University of Pennsylvania.</ref> [[File:Hamlet Pronunciation Notes.jpeg|thumb|280px|left|Footnotes on an introductory page of ''Hamlet'']]An introductory page that features phonetic symbols to help Italian readers properly pronounce Shakespearean English includes two footnotes, marked by “*” and “**” give notes on vowels and consonants for the reader. Interestingly, these are the only notes in the book marked by symbols, and they do not use the traditional symbol pattern of *†‡§, etc. In the text of the play, footnotes are used to clarify words or phrases that may be confusing to the Italian reader. Notably, these notes are in Italian while the actual text of the play is in English. These textual footnotes are marked by superscript numerals and are organized into two columns at the bottom of the page. At the end of each scene the numbering of the footnotes is reset, so in some scenes the footnotes reach upwards of one hundred. While the footnotes in this edition of Hamlet are in Italian, these notes are mostly explanatory. On page 23, a note clarifies for Italian readers that “mart: contrazione di market: qui, commercio;” this note both translates and clarifies English jargon for Italian readers. A note on page 39 explains the English phrase “I doubt some foul play” that may be confusing for non-native speakers.
=== Annotations and Marginalia ===
This copy doesn't contain any annotations or marginalia. A reason could be that the book was in the hands of collectors or people who just wanted to read for curiosity. Other copies of this book could definitely have annotations. A student studying what serpents eat and how they move proves as an example of where annotations can be made.
An 1881 edition of The Complete Works of William Shakespeare; Harvard Edition, revised by Henry Hudson, ([[90 1880H]]) uses a slightly different tactic for the organization of its notes. In this edition the footnotes are also marked with superscript numbers but appear in one column at the bottom of the page.<ref>Shakespeare, William. The complete works of William Shakespeare: with a life of the poet, explanatory foot-notes, critical notes, and a glossarial index, volumes V and XIV. Ginn & Heath, 1881, from Rare Book and Manuscript Library, University of Pennsylvania.</ref> The numbering of the footnotes also restarts at the beginning of each page. While these footnotes are described as “explanatory foot-notes” on the title page, they take on a much more extensive and editorial than in the Italian edition of Hamlet discussed above. [[File:Twelfth Night Footnotes.jpeg|thumb|250px|left|Footnotes in the 1881 Harvard Edition of ''Twelfth Night'']] A note from page 181 of Hamlet, includes a note with a quote from Dr. Issac Ray which describes him as “a man of large science and ripe experience in the treatment of insanity, says of Hamlet’s behavior” that “‘it betrays the excitement of delirium,– the wandering of a mind reeling under the first stroke of disease.’” While this note is helpful for the reader to better understand text, it is a note that is more than simple analysis and is used to comment on the text in a way that is more reminiscent of the way footnotes were used prior to Leopold von Ranke’s views on modern documented historiography. A note of this style would never have appeared in the 1965 Italian edition of Hamlet.
== Historical Significance ==
[[File:HansSloane.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A dedication to Sir Hans Sloane]]
=== Sir Han's Sloane ===
[[File:Endnotes.jpeg|thumb|250px|right|Endnotes in the 1881 Harvard Edition of ''Hamlet'']]
A very interesting part of this book is that there is a dedication to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Sloane Sir Hans Sloane]. Sir Hans Slone was a physician by trade but was also a collector of objects from around the world. <ref> British Museum, ''Sir Has Sloane'', retrieved May 8 2023 from https://www.britishmuseum.org/about-us/british-museum-story/sir-hans-sloane </ref>. Sloane collected more than 71,000 items and it became the founding collection of the British Museum. This dedication sparks the idea that this book was in fact a science book. The importance of this dedication is that we can see how early authors spread natural science knowledge.
Because these notes are lengthier, the footnotes section of the page often takes up half of the page in the dramas such as Julius Caesar and Hamlet. The comedies, As You Like It and Twelfth Night, feature fewer and shorter footnotes, but they too contain notes that are more editorial than the Italian edition was. One note on page 140 of Twelfth Night, contains an eleven-line excerpt of a Wordsworth poem in order to explain the reference to Arion, a creature from Greek mythology, that appears in the text of the play. This edition of Shakespeare’s works also contains extensive critical endnotes at the end of each play. These endnotes contain information about differences between this edition and previous editions of the play. These notes can be very helpful to the reader because of the fluid nature of Shakespeare; many sections of what we consider to be officially the words of Shakespeare did not appear in the First Folio as noted in a critical note on Act I, Scene I of Hamlet. This endnote specifies about one line containing the word “climature” that “The quartos have climatures. Not in the folio.” By organizing the explanatory and critical notes in this way, the reviser, Henry Hudson, makes this edition accessible for first time readers and Shakespeare scholars alike. Additionally, it is useful that the endnotes are organized for each play at the end of its text. There are two plays per volume and 20 volumes in the complete set, so positioning the endnotes at the end of each play made them more accessible for the reader.
=== 1800 Science ===
A huge part of the significance of this book is to see how the evolution of science publishing has changed over time. Although this book was printed in the late 18th century, it contains details that are still seen in today's science textbooks. It contains an index for the reader to navigate and in the beginning includes printing errors and corrections. These traits are still prevalent in today's science texts. What's interesting is that although this is a science text, it still contains religious texts and ideas. The third section of this book contains six dissertations, some of which have religious ideas. ''The Brazen Serpent erected by Moses'', ''Upon the Primeval Serpent in Paradise'', and ''The Fiery Serpents that infested the Camp Of Israel'' are 3 dissertations that contain biblical ideas. The book has a mix of both natural and non-natural elements which gives insight into the publishing of academic works and how science and religion were perceived. It showed how science and religion were tied at the time. This mix of religion and science could have also been used to make the book less scientific so it can be enjoyed by various audiences. Before the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnaean_taxonomy Linnaean taxonomic system ], a form of biological classification, naturalists identified and categorized natural objects by the use of reference systems to track specimens in knowledge exchanges between collectors and naturalists. <ref>Margócsy, Dániel. “‘Refer to Folio and Number’: Encyclopedias, the Exchange of Curiosities, and Practices of Identification before Linnaeus.” Journal of the History of Ideas, vol. 71, no. 1, 2010, pp. 63–89. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20621923. Accessed 8 May 2023. </ref>. This particular book doesn't contain any reference systems to identify the specimens which is partially due to the fact of the precise detail of the copper plate engravings and the appearance of the species name above the engravings. Overall this book is significant in learning more about how science was perceived in the 18th century and how it has changed throughout time.
== The Significance of the History of Early Chemistry ==
[[File:Footnotes in "The Significance of Early Chemistry".jpeg|thumb|550px|right|Footnotes in "The Significance of Early Chemistry" by Allen G. Debus in the ''Journal of World History'', 1965]]
A 1965 paper by Allen G. Debus, ''The Significance of the History of Early Chemistry'' ([[QD14 .D423]]), exhibits footnotes that that reflect the style of modern documented historiography that Leopold von Ranke started.<ref>Debus, Allen G. The Significance of the History of Early Chemistry. The Journal of World History, 1965, from Rare Book and Manuscript Library, University of Pennsylvania.</ref> The footnotes in this paper contain extensive information on the works referenced an where they were found. Note 17 on page 45 contains background information on the “current state of the study of Islamic alchemy” which the author mentions only briefly in the paper itself. While these footnotes are presented in a more formal academic style than the Harvard edition of Shakespeare’s works discussed above, they still contain more than citations alone. Note 53 on page 52 contains expanded information on medieval alchemists that is not included in the text above. This paper exemplifies the downsides of footnotes; on many pages, the footnotes take up over half the page. The benefit of this kind of extensive footnote is that it allows the reader to see immediately and in full the sources from which the information comes, any other background information needed, and how to find these sources for themselves.
It is important too to consider the target audience of a piece of work when formatting the footnotes. The audience of Debus’s paper would have likely been scientific historians who would’ve already had a baseline knowledge of the subject and may have been interested in reading the references themselves. In contrast, the audience of the two editions of Shakespeare discussed above would have been a greater range of armature Shakespeare readers to Shakespeare scholars. The notes are organized so that basic information necessary for the comprehension of the plays appeared as footnotes on the pages they were needed while critical notes, which would have been more useful for scholars, appeared at the end of each play.
== Notes ==
== Notes ==
Latest revision as of 02:00, 9 May 2023
An Essay Towards A Natural History Of Serpents is a book by Charles Owen published in 1742 in London. The book is broken down into three parts: The first part talks about a general view of serpents such as their motion, diet, habits, and physical features. The second part gives a view of serpents known in several parts of the world described by their names, countries, and qualities. Finally, The third part contains six dissertations that are collateral to the subject of the book. The book contains seven copper plates engravings, due to the high cost of having copper plate engravings, a solution was to incorporate subscriptions to help aid the printing of this book. The pages were most likely made from rags or linen. With the coming of a new scientific publishing era, this book is a prime example of a mix of both science and religious attributes and gives an insight on how early science books/papers were written.
Title page of the book, gives an overview of the contents
First page in the list of subscribersone of the six copper plate engravingsone of the six copper plate engravings. Shows the duality of natural and unnatural elements contained in this text
Audience and Circulation
The audience was anyone who had an interest in serpents. It was written in a way that doesn't exclude anyone from reading it. Audiences could have ranged from collectors to students interested in researching serpents. The precise detail of the copper plate engravings also added features that could be enjoyed by various audiences. When it comes to circulation, the front title states "Sold by John Gray, at the Cross-Keys in the Poultry, near Cheapside". So, in the beginning, circulation started by being sold near Cheapside. Also, in early modern Britain, the primary means of creating, assembling, and sharing knowledge was through these types of books [1]. Another audience and source of circulation come from the people that subscribed to the printing of this book. In this specific copy was owned by George Sherwood and then was later owned by Charles W. Burr, a professor of nervous diseases at Upenn. Finally, it was given to Penn in 1925.
Subscriptions
Due to the high costs of printing, authors came to subscribers for financial help. Similar to subscriptions today, subscribers would financially help by donating money and in return have their names in the book as a subscriber and also get a copy of the book after printing. This book had many subscribers. This was due in part to how expensive the copper plate engravings were. This book contains seven engravings so printing a lot of copies would cost a lot of money. Thus, these subscribers would be some of the first people to start the circulation of this book.
Annotations and Marginalia
This copy doesn't contain any annotations or marginalia. A reason could be that the book was in the hands of collectors or people who just wanted to read for curiosity. Other copies of this book could definitely have annotations. A student studying what serpents eat and how they move proves as an example of where annotations can be made.
Historical Significance
A dedication to Sir Hans Sloane
Sir Han's Sloane
A very interesting part of this book is that there is a dedication to Sir Hans Sloane. Sir Hans Slone was a physician by trade but was also a collector of objects from around the world. [2]. Sloane collected more than 71,000 items and it became the founding collection of the British Museum. This dedication sparks the idea that this book was in fact a science book. The importance of this dedication is that we can see how early authors spread natural science knowledge.
1800 Science
A huge part of the significance of this book is to see how the evolution of science publishing has changed over time. Although this book was printed in the late 18th century, it contains details that are still seen in today's science textbooks. It contains an index for the reader to navigate and in the beginning includes printing errors and corrections. These traits are still prevalent in today's science texts. What's interesting is that although this is a science text, it still contains religious texts and ideas. The third section of this book contains six dissertations, some of which have religious ideas. The Brazen Serpent erected by Moses, Upon the Primeval Serpent in Paradise, and The Fiery Serpents that infested the Camp Of Israel are 3 dissertations that contain biblical ideas. The book has a mix of both natural and non-natural elements which gives insight into the publishing of academic works and how science and religion were perceived. It showed how science and religion were tied at the time. This mix of religion and science could have also been used to make the book less scientific so it can be enjoyed by various audiences. Before the Linnaean taxonomic system , a form of biological classification, naturalists identified and categorized natural objects by the use of reference systems to track specimens in knowledge exchanges between collectors and naturalists. [3]. This particular book doesn't contain any reference systems to identify the specimens which is partially due to the fact of the precise detail of the copper plate engravings and the appearance of the species name above the engravings. Overall this book is significant in learning more about how science was perceived in the 18th century and how it has changed throughout time.
Notes
↑Yale, Elizabeth. “Introduction.: ‘A Whole and Perfect Bodie and Book’: Constructing the Human and Natural History of Britain.” Sociable Knowledge: Natural History and the Nation in Early Modern Britain, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016, pp. 1–20. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt18z4hqs.5. Accessed 8 May 2023.
↑Margócsy, Dániel. “‘Refer to Folio and Number’: Encyclopedias, the Exchange of Curiosities, and Practices of Identification before Linnaeus.” Journal of the History of Ideas, vol. 71, no. 1, 2010, pp. 63–89. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20621923. Accessed 8 May 2023.
