View source for Titles/Title Pages/Incipits/Colophons

How do you identify a book? In current times, most people would answer this seemingly obvious question with “the title.” But relatively speaking, the title, and its associated technologies of the title page, incipit, and colophon have only been around for so long; each of these technologies had to be invented. Prior to these inventions, books were designated by other means. For example, clay tablets were designated by numbers, Ancient Hebrew texts by the first few words (comparable to an incipit), and even the ancient oral stories of Greece and Rome were titled after the fact, most likely by scribes or grammarians. <ref> Levin, “The Title as a Literary Genre,”  pg. xxiv-xxv.</ref> Following this age, titling devices were invented, and tracing the trajectory of titles, title pages, incipits, and colophons throughout book history proves valuable not only bibliographically, but when looking toward the current digital incunable age.

== History == 
There are four main ways to identify a book, and each have their own unique place in book history. Incipits derive from antiquity and much like a title, are used to introduce the reader to a text, taking place as the first few words of a text. But unlike the title, incipits employ the author’s voice, and serve as an almost conversational introduction. <ref>Shevlin, “‘To Reconcile Book and Title, and Make ‘em Kin to One Another,’: The Evolution of the Title’s Contractual Features.”</ref> The incipit was very common in medieval manuscripts and early printed books but has since lost popularity. However, a well-known work, Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, begins with an incipit, “here begynneth ...” <ref>Shevlin, “‘To Reconcile Book and Title, and Make ‘em Kin to One Another,’: The Evolution of the Title’s Contractual Features.”</ref> Like the incipit, the life of the colophon [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colophon_(publishing) traces to antiquity]. The colophon [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colophon_(publishing) contains information about the publication of the book, and prior to the invention of the title page was placed in the back of the manuscript]. With the advent of the title page, the colophon moved to the back of the title page. Despite the shift, the colophon remains in existence today, just in different forms than its initial conception. For example, some [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colophon_(publishing) websites have colophons containing the XHTML]. While the existence and use of incipits and colophons has faded due to the inventions of titles and title pages, incipits and colophons still remain important book technologies. 

Titles derive from the latin word Titulus, translated as “inscription, label, notice, title of honor, fame, pretext.” <ref>Adams, "Titles, Titling, and Entitlement To," pg 8.</ref> Despite the antiquated name, titles were not used in antiquity, instead reaching popularity during the arrival of the printing press. Prior to the printing press, title placement was “haphazard until the appearance of the title page between 1475 and 1480,” with titles previously appearing most often in the colophon. <ref>Shevlin, “‘To Reconcile Book and Title, and Make ‘em Kin to One Another,’: The Evolution of the Title’s Contractual Features.”</ref> While there is no consensus regarding the inception of titles, which in itself speaks to the initial insignificance of titles, there are theories about why titles and title pages arose. [https://ackland.org/files/2016/02/HistoryoftheTitlePage.pdf One well-regarded theory] asserts that printers would leave blank pages around the books in their shop because they did not want to get them dirty; however, they needed something to identify the books with when giving them to the customers, and thus the title and title page emerged. The title page generally contains a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_page “title, subtitle, author, publisher, and edition”]. Title pages arose coincidentally with the printing press, around 1500. Incunables, or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_page “the first printed books,”] mark a transitory phase and include parts of medieval manuscripts, such as incipits, as well as the beginnings of modern book technologies, such as title pages. Printers often distributed title pages as flyers to advertise their press. <ref>Shevlin, “‘To Reconcile Book and Title, and Make ‘em Kin to One Another,’: The Evolution of the Title’s Contractual Features.”</ref> With the regular use of the title page, titles soon became an indelible feature of books as well as an attribute of books that has garnered much scholarly debate.

== Scholarly Insights on Titles ==
Many scholars have written about titles and entitling. The breadth of work on this topic leads to the following conclusion: since there are a great deal of scholarly observations, titles have already accumulated much more intense meaning than their original intent. Circling back to the previously cited theory about the emergence of titles and title pages, it can be assumed that titles did not arise out of an important literary and interpretative need, but rather a functional need, which then grew into interpretative and thematic importance. 

Scholars’ interpretation of the function of titles juxtaposes the insignificance of the title’s initial emergence. John Fisher is one scholar who deeply interacted with titles. His thesis on titles states: 
<blockquote>
“While titles are names, they are a good deal more than just names. They are not necessarily descriptions, although they can contain descriptive elements. They are names for a purpose, not merely for the purpose of identification and designation, in spite of the important practical role which indexical names play in the designative process. The unique purpose of titling is hermeneutical; titles are names which function as guides to interpretation.” <ref>Fisher, “Entitling.” pg. 288.</ref>
</blockquote>
Fisher posits that titles have a deeper purpose beyond just a naming device to aid in the identification of literary works. Titles, according to Fisher, guide readers through the work, allowing them to interpret the work via the title. Fisher’s fellow scholar, Hazard Adams calls titles “marginal,” but adds that “their marginality is central,” agreeing with Fisher that titles have a larger meaning, as “synecdoches,” representing the whole work. <ref>Adams, “Titles, Titling, and Entitlement To.” pg. 7.</ref> Adams also interacts with the Jerrold Levinson’s commonly cited four theses on titles, the first of which is paramount to this important juxtaposition of the contemporary importance of titles despite their inconsequential birth. Levinson’s first thesis advances that “titles of artworks are often ''integral parts'' of them, constitutive of what such works are.” <ref>Adams, “Titles, Titling, and Entitlement To.” pg. 9.</ref> While Adams spends much of his paper arguing that Levinson’s first thesis does not go far enough, and that in fact titles of artworks are “always” “integral parts of them,” this argument in and of itself shows how much stamina titles have gained from their initial place in the literary community. <ref>Adams, “Titles, Titling, and Entitlement To.” pg. 9-10.</ref> Finally, S.J. Wilsmore also claims that titles have an interpretative function, as well as a naming duty. He further argues that a “literary work often possesses its title essentially in that it could not be the same literary work without it.” <ref>Wilsmore, “The Role of Titles in Identifying Literary Works.” pg. 408. </ref>

== Analysis of Scholarly Work == 
From a current literary standpoint, it is hard to argue with Fisher, Adams, Levinson, and Wilsmore. Titles do currently have a deep interpretative meaning, with authors going so far as to place their central themes around the title, and write the title into their works. While Fisher, Adams, Levinson, and Wilsmore’s arguments speak to the present function of titles, their theories and arguments surrounding the title juxtapose the title’s initial emergence. The title arose out of a need from printers, and was a device not at all important to classical oral stories like ''The Iliad,'' for example. Essentially, a title is more than just a few words. Titles were created out of a necessity, but have since thrown away their humble beginnings and risen to prominence. But besides the theories and arguments of these twentieth century scholars, titles expanded beyond their original intent as soon as the Copyright Act of 1710 recognized titles as the “guarantor of texts legally.” <ref>Shevlin, “‘To Reconcile Book and Title, and Make ‘em Kin to One Another,’: The Evolution of the Title’s Contractual Features.”</ref> This act highlighted the title’s ever-growing importance by asserting that “one’s legal claim of property in a work could and would be recognized only if its ''title'' had been registered with the Company of Stationers.” <ref>Shevlin, “‘To Reconcile Book and Title, and Make ‘em Kin to One Another,’: The Evolution of the Title’s Contractual Features.”</ref> Thus while Fisher, Adams, Levinson, and Wilsmores’ analyses certainly contrast the insignificance of titles throughout book history, as soon as the title became popular it was already afforded much more importance than its initial design. 

== Affordances and Limitations of Titles ==

Despite this contrast, titles perhaps have contributed to the spread of reading. Many people recommend books, as well as find out about books, via their titles. Titles also function as advertising devices and allow for certain themes to emerge. Yet, titles foreclose other opportunities. Some may argue that the fall of the incipit led to the fall of author-consumer discourse, as it is much less common now for authors to insert themselves in their works; however, authors still have the ability to directly address their readers. More than anything, because titles often serve as a marketing ploy, they allow for the phenomenon of judging a book by its cover. 

== Analysis of Objects == 
Returning to a time when it was nearly impossible to judge a book by its cover, Rare Book Rooms and Special Collections, such as the University of Pennsylvania’s Rare Book and Manuscript Library, demonstrate the transitory qualities of incipits, titles, title pages, and colophons through incunables and early printed books. 

An examination of three manuscripts from Penn’s Rare Book and Manuscript Library, allows for a comparison between the role of titles, title pages, incipits, and colophons in the transitory time of printing (around the 1500s). ''Libro della vita Viduale’s'' [1490] first identification comes in the form of a title page, home to just this title and an ornate woodcut (Figure 1). 

[[File: Libro della vita viduale title page.JPG|200px|thumb|left|Figure 1: The title page of ''Libro della vita Viduale.'']]

Cataloguers at Penn think it to be by Girolamo Savonarola, but there is no name on the title page. However, ''Libro della vita Viduale’s'' incipit announces the commencement of the text as well as the name, Hieronymo, which is thought to be Savonarola (Figure 2).

[[File: Libro della vita viduale incipit.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Figure 2: ''Libro della vita Viduale's'' incipit, announcing the commencement of the text.]]

Penn’s catalogue of this work believes its publication to be, Florence : Bartolommeo di Libri, ca. 1490, which was otherwise not denoted in the book. Such information would be typical of the colophon, or back of the title page, but for this incunable no such information exists on the manuscript. However, digitization allows for such information to come to light. ''Iuuenalis Persius'' [1501], a very early printed book, follows the tradition of ''Libro della vita Viduale'' by having a title page just containing the title (Figure 3). 

[[File: Iuuenalis Persius title page.JPG|200px|thumb|left|Figure 3: The title page of ''Iuuenalis Persius.'']]

However, on the back of the title page, ''Iuuenalis Persius'' contains a note from famous Italian printer, Aldus Manutius, to Scipio, essentially saying that he made a shorter book (Manutius invented a new size format) (Figure 4).

[[File: Iuuenalis Persius printer's note.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Figure 4: Manutius' printer note on the back of the title page of ''Iuuenalis Persius.'']]

In this instance, the title page contains some of its current information as the identity of the printer is known; however, it also demonstrates the liberty of printers during this time. Penn cataloguers believe the publication to be, Venetiis, in dibus Aldi. mense augusto, 1501, which would have otherwise been unknown by just observing the manuscript. ''Libro della vita Viduale'' and ''Iuuenalis Persius'' were published within eleven years of one another. Both serve to demonstrate the coexistence of the title, incipit, title page, and colophon as identification devices. In addition, both these works are staples of the incunable period as printers and publishers had not yet figured out the standard for identifying the title pages, so the works wound up having a collision of different devices. It is interesting to think about: how would someone have identified these books at the time of publication? By their title pages? While the title page seems like an accurate guess, it is hard to determine for certain.

''Bartholomeu[s] de proprietatib[us] re[rum]'' [1495] is an example of another incunable that exemplifies the transitional period between incipits, colophons, titles, and title pages. It has a title page that contains a stamp of the title (Figure 5), as well as an incipit, “in the beginning of my boke,” housed in the Primus (Figure 6).

[[File: Bartholomeus de proprietatibus rereum title page.JPG|200px|thumb|left|Figure 5: The stamp of ''Bathrolomeus de proprietatibus rerum'' on the title page.]]

== Notes ==
<references />

== Works Cited == 
Levin, Harry. “The Title as a Literary Genre.” The Modern Language Review, vol 72, no. 4,
Published by Modern Humanities Research Association, October 1977, pp. xxiii-xxxvi,
JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3724776

Shevlin, Eleanor, F. “‘To Reconcile Book and Title, and Make ‘em Kin to One Another,’: The Evolution of the Title’s Contractual Features.” Book History, vol 2, 1999. Johns Hopkins University Press. http://muse.jhu.edu/article/3592

Adams, Hazard. “Titles, Titling, and Entitlement To.” The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, vol. 46., no. 1, Published by Wiley on behalf of The American Society for Aesthetics, Autumn 1987, pp. 7-21, JSTOR  https://www.jstor.org/stable/431304  

Fisher, John. “Entitling.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 11, no. 2. The University of Chicago Press,
December 1984, pp. 286-298, JSTOR https://www.jstor.org/stable/1343396 

Wilsmore, S.J. “The Role of Titles in Identifying Literary Works.” The Journal of Aesthetics and
Art Criticism, vol 45., no. 4, Published by Wiley on behalf of the American Society for
Aesthetics, Summer 1987, pp. 403-408, JSTOR.  https://www.jstor.org/stable/431331  




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